- uma regra;
- uma instituição;
- um costume;
- uma prática social;
- ou até um valor moral;
sexta-feira, janeiro 09, 2026
A economia precisa de morte, não de assassinato
sexta-feira, novembro 21, 2025
A estagnação como consequência (Parte III)
O que escrevi sobre sociedades que evitam dor e economias que evitam recessões encaixa-se na perfeição na lógica de Joaquim Aguiar sobre o campo de possibilidades.
A sua teoria dá, aliás, a estrutura conceptual que explica por que caímos nessa espiral. Segundo Aguiar, o campo de possibilidades de um país define-se pelos seus constrangimentos estruturais. Quando uma sociedade rejeita desconforto, reformas, ajustamentos, rupturas curtas para evitar colapsos longos — o campo não se mantém estático: estreita-se. Perdem-se graus de liberdade.
A cada ciclo político que promete aliviar a dor:
- mantém-se dívida,
- congelam-se privilégios,
- adia-se investimento produtivo,
- impede-se destruição criativa, e
- ganha força quem depende do status quo.
Resultado: há cada vez menos a escolher e cada vez menos a mudar.
A democracia anestesiada produz um campo de possibilidades cada vez mais pobre.
Aguiar dizia que o campo de possibilidades é sempre menor do que parece. A estabilidade artificial — económica e política — reduz ainda mais esse campo.
Ao evitarmos recessões (Parte I) e dor política (Parte II), ficamos com:
- menos margem orçamental,
- menos produtividade,
- menos capacidade de ajustamento,
- menos legitimidade para contrariar interesses instalados,
- mais actores capazes de vetar qualquer reforma.
É o que Aguiar chamaria de um campo bloqueado.
A aparência de tranquilidade é, de facto, a acumulação silenciosa de impossibilidades.
Nos sistemas sociais e económicos, os choques funcionam como resets que alargam o campo de possibilidades.
Aguiar diria que:
- uma crise abre alternativas;
- um ajustamento redefine prioridades;
- um colapso parcial elimina actores que bloqueavam caminhos;
- uma ruptura revela escolhas escondidas.
Sem estas descargas:
- o campo não se expande,
- cristaliza-se, e
- torna-se regressivamente mais estreito.
A paz prolongada e a ausência de recessões não geram liberdade — geram estreitamento estrutural do possível.
Aguiar era implacável com esta falha: os actores políticos anunciam fins que o campo de possibilidades não permite realizar.
O evitar da dor redefine esse campo de forma tão restritiva que:
- as reformas necessárias não cabem nele,
- as promessas necessárias não são viáveis,
- e o sistema torna-se refém das suas próprias ilusões.
É aqui que o FT e a The Economist convergem com Aguiar: ao evitarmos dor durante décadas, criámos um campo de possibilidades tão pequeno que já quase nada cabe lá dentro — excepto mais estímulos, mais apoios, mais adiamentos.
Aguiar diria: "Ao eliminar os mecanismos de dor, eliminamos os mecanismos que criam possibilidades."
Ou, dito de outra forma: evitar todos os sobressaltos não amplia as escolhas — destrói-as.
Está decidido, vou reler:
quinta-feira, novembro 20, 2025
A estagnação como consequência (parte II)
No The Times do passado Domingo um texto de Matthew Syed, "Numbed by borrowing, we can't see how badly we need to go cold turkey".
Se, na Parte I, defendi que longos períodos de paz criam sistemas que acumulam fragilidades invisíveis, a leitura do artigo de Matthew Syed reforça esse diagnóstico aplicando-o directamente às democracias modernas. Se as economias que evitam recessões se tornam frágeis, também as sociedades que evitam desconforto político e social entram numa espiral semelhante: crescem sem músculo, sobrevivem sem regeneração e tornam-se incapazes de enfrentar desafios reais.
O autor usa uma metáfora brutal e certeira: não tomamos OxyContin, mas engolimos políticas públicas que funcionam como analgésicos potentes. Prometem conforto imediato, escondem custos futuros e criam dependência. E, tal como um organismo habituado a doses cada vez maiores, os eleitorados também desenvolveram um limiar de dor extremamente baixo. O autor não poderia ser mais directo:
"We have become a body politic with an ultra-low pain threshold."
Isto explica muita coisa. Explica por que tão poucos aceitam reformas estruturais. Explica por que qualquer tentativa de cortar privilégios — mesmo os insustentáveis — desencadeia tempestades políticas. Explica, sobretudo, a nossa parcimónia no que toca a aceitar pequenos sacrifícios agora para evitar grandes rupturas amanhã.
O resultado é semelhante ao das economias que eliminam as recessões: criamos um ambiente de suposta estabilidade que se torna cada vez mais tóxico. Tal como The Economist mostra que 15 anos sem recessões levaram à má alocação de capital, empresas zombi e produtividade estagnada, Syed mostra que 30 anos a evitar dor política produziram democracias exaustas, estagnadas e, em muitos casos, cínicas.
O trabalho de Ruchir Sharma, citado no texto, é revelador:
"in the seven largest democracies the combined stimulus from governments and central banks rose from 1 per cent of GDP in the recessions of the 1980s and 1990s to 3 per cent in 2001, 12 per cent in 2008 and 35 per cent in 2020. He writes: "The public - particularly homeowners, stockholders and bondholders - came to expect more help in every crisis … culminating in the shockingly large doses of government aid in the pandemic. Though inspired by a kind of paternalistic fear, these rescues are delivered with the growing certainty that the cure is not worse than the disease."
Esta expectativa de salvação automática é politicamente irresistível, mas corrosiva a longo prazo. Tal como recessões eliminam ineficiências, a política também precisa de momentos de dor para corrigir excessos, reequilibrar sistemas e restaurar responsabilidade. Evitar esses momentos equivale a programar uma crise maior.
A analogia histórica é igualmente perturbadora. O autor cita Will Durant:
"A nation, like a man, is born stoic and dies epicurean."
E a verdade é que o pós-1991 nos tornou epicuristas políticos: acreditámos que o sofrimento era opcional e que o progresso era garantido.
"After the collapse of the Soviet Union, we thought we'd won and utopia was our birthright."
Esse sentimento de invulnerabilidade - semelhante à paz prolongada que referi na Parte I - adormeceu a capacidade de aceitar custos, enfrentar dificuldades e tomar decisões difíceis.
A consequência é dupla:
1. Economias que crescem mais lentamente porque nunca são reestruturadas.
2. Democracias que se degradam porque nunca têm a coragem de contrariar expectativas instaladas.
A dor não desaparece. Apenas se acumula.
"Pain cannot be erased — only deferred. And deferred pain grows."
A The Economist fala de economias que perderam o seu ciclo de limpeza natural. Syed fala de democracias que perderam a capacidade de aceitar o desconforto. Ambas descrevem sistemas que caminham rumo a uma ruptura não por excesso de instabilidade, mas por excesso de estabilidade artificial.
A grande pergunta final - que Syed deixa no ar - é esta: estaremos dispostos a aceitar o "desmame" desta dependência colectiva? Ou preferimos continuar anestesiados até ao momento do colapso?
A resposta, claro, ainda não existe. Mas talvez seja esta a oportunidade: voltar a cultivar pequenos sobressaltos, pequenas reformas, pequenas dores — antes que fiquemos sem margem para evitar uma dor grande.
E, tal como defendi na Parte I sobre as economias, o mesmo se aplica às democracias: o desconforto não é uma ameaça à estabilidade — é a sua condição de possibilidade.
Se tivesse mais tempo trabalhava melhor a descrição do panorama:
domingo, novembro 16, 2025
A estagnação como consequência
segunda-feira, novembro 10, 2025
Ver para lá do que se conhece (parte VII)
"Fourteen years after Suzanne Edwards stood on a balcony in Morocco, leant against the side and felt the railing break, she moves her right leg forwards. he shifts weight to her left leg. veating with the effort, and slowly makes a step.No one would call it a miracle. In this Swiss physiotherapy unit there is a harness suspended from the ceiling, bars to hold on to and a team monitoring her progress. Later she may transfer to a walking frame for short distances. But there is still something miraculous about it....Weeks after experimental surgery, simply by thinking about walking, Edwards walks. She is far from cured but she is also far from what she thought she could do when shewoke up to be told her back had broken."
No, The Times de ontem "I was told I'd never walk again. Now I just think walk' and I do". O artigo descreve o caso de Suzanne Edwards, uma mulher que ficou paralisada após um acidente e que conseguiu voltar a andar graças a uma tecnologia inovadora de implantes neurais ligados à inteligência artificial (IA). O sistema, desenvolvido por Grégoire Courtine e pela neurocirurgiã Jocelyne Bloch no Hospital Universitário de Lausanne (Suíça), cria uma espécie de “ponte digital” entre o cérebro e a medula espinhal: os sinais elétricos associados ao pensamento de “andar” são descodificados por um processador externo e reenviados a um segundo implante na medula, que estimula as pernas a moverem-se.
Embora ainda em fase experimental, este avanço mostra potencial para transformar a vida de pessoas com paralisia e mudar a forma como a sociedade encara a incapacidade permanente.
Recordar: Ver para lá do que se conhece - Parte I, parte II, parte III, parte IV, parte V e parte VI.
terça-feira, outubro 14, 2025
Acerca do Nobel da Economia
Há dias o JdN publicou, "Líder do FMI sugere "czar do mercado único" para UE. "Já chega de retórica sobre competitividade"" onde se podia ler esta pérola:
"A diretora-geral do FMI sugere a nomeação do que chama "czar do mercado único" para impulsionar as reformas no bloco, afirmando que "já chega de retórica sobre competitividade.""
Não sei o que é que a líder do FMI tem realmente em mente, mas entretanto, acerca do Nobel da Economia li:
"Philippe Aghion and Peter Howitt also studied the mechanisms behind sustained growth. In an article from 1992, they constructed a mathematical model for what is called creative destruction: when a new and better product enters the market, the companies selling the older products lose out. The innovation represents something new and is thus creative. However, it is also destructive, as the company whose technology becomes passé is outcompeted.
In different ways, the laureates show how creative destruction creates conflicts that must be managed in a constructive manner. Otherwise, innovation will be blocked by established companies and interest groups that risk being put at a disadvantage.
“The laureates’ work shows that economic growth cannot be taken for granted. We must uphold the mechanisms that underly creative destruction, so that we do not fall back into stagnation,” says John Hassler, Chair of the Committee for the prize in economic sciences."
Os políticos europeus têm medo desta fase destrutiva. Por isso, correm a proteger as empresas ultrapassadas. Nunca esqueço o relato do jovem Spender que publiquei há quase 10 anos "Apesar das boas intenções"
Não esquecer a mensagem do livro de Phil Mullan "Creative Destruction". Por exemplo: Em vez de abraçar a destruição criativa ...
sexta-feira, março 07, 2025
Schumpeter, China e nós
"National People's Congress? Don't count on it. After decades following British economist John Maynard Keynes and his doctrine of demand management, China's leadership is taking a lesson from US economist Joseph Schumpeter and his creed of creative destruction....The rest of the world had moved on from Keynes and his great insight-born of the Great Depression of the 1930s—that in a downturn the government should pay people to dig holes in the ground and then fill them in. But until pretty recently, roads to nowhere, desolate airports and vacant apartment towers showed China was sticking to the Keynes playbook.This resolve was great for growth. In the years after the global financial crisis of 2008, China's economy continued to hum, while self-imposed austerity delayed recoveries in the US and Europe. All that stimulus, though, left China laboring under a heavy burden of overcapacity. In the end, too many idle factories, too many empty apartments and too many unpaid real estate loans resulted in an economic malaise not dissimilar to the one that afflicted Western economies in the 1970s after their decades of following Keynes' recipe.What's the solution? Whether by choice or necessity, Keynes is out and China is now following the precepts of another great economist: Schumpeter. In Capitalism, Socialism, and Democracy, his magnum opus, Schumpeter argues that the power of the capitalist system came from a "perennial gale of creative destruction" blowing through the economy. New technologies displace old technologies. New companies displace old companies. For the losers, it's painful. But it drives progress.Schumpeter made the case that creative destruction was unique to capitalism. China is demonstrating it can work in its hybrid state-plus-market system, too. Exhibit A is the property sector, where after years of backstopping developers, the government is allowing them to face the consequences of their excesses. The shakeout has been savage for all those involved, from bondholders to homebuyers who made down payments on apartments that will never be built. But it also means capital and labor are freed up for more productive purposes....Is the transition from Keynes to Schumpeter going to be smooth? No. ... the country is moving from a diet of cheesecake to a diet of broccoli-less tasty but more healthy....It was as an immigrant to the US-and professor at Harvard-that Schumpeter developed his theory of creative destruction. If the US is to stay ahead in the global economic race, it would be wise not to forget his wisdom, especially as China has just learned it."
quinta-feira, janeiro 30, 2025
Ver para lá do que se conhece (parte VI)
Ver para lá do que se conhece - Parte I, parte II, parte III, parte IV e parte V.
Neuralink has the potential to fully cure paralysis.
— DogeDesigner (@cb_doge) January 24, 2025
"It is possible from the physics standpoint to restore full body functionality." 一 Elon Musk
pic.twitter.com/pAUjScRYc1
"Scientists have for the first time given a realistic sense of touch to people operating a robotic hand via signals sent from their brain, marking the latest advance in neurotechnology research to help overcome disabilities."
domingo, setembro 29, 2024
A parte que falta
"Ao mesmo tempo, quando uma empresa tem lucro, ela vai atrair a atenção de outras empresas e potenciais empresários, que querem, também eles, ter lucro. Eles vão aprender o que ela faz bem, corrigir o que ela faz mal e pagar mais em salários para atrair os seus trabalhadores. A empresa vai reagir, e todos eles vão competir em busca deste lucro. Em última instância, elas vão baixar os preços, a forma clássica de roubar clientes à concorrência. Desde que haja lucro, uma delas pode cobrar um pouquinho menos e capturar parte desse lucro. Neste processo dinâmico e fervilhante o resultado final é que o lucro tende a desaparecer.
...
A busca determinada e obsessiva da empresa pelo lucro converte-se na proteção desse lucro. Se ela conseguir impedir que outros entrem no seu mercado, se ela sabotar as suas tentativas de inovar, se ela convencer governantes a bloquearem a entrada de concorrentes com regulamentos e licenças, então ela vai conseguir manter o seu lucro. Gastar recursos para impedir a pressão insuportável da concorrência é um desperdício da perspetiva da sociedade, mas vale a pena da perspetiva do empresário. O paradoxo do lucro vem com outro paradoxo: o maior inimigo do capitalismo são os capitalistas."
No primeiro trecho o autor retrata bem aquilo a que eu chamo aqui de "a doença anglo-saxónica". Por exemplo em Portanto, cuidado com pedintes que ameaçam sair da União Europeia.
No segundo trecho o autor refere aquilo que na blogosfera já foi classificado. Por exemplo em A minha primeira lei sobre a concorrência?Trechos retirados do Caderno de Economia do semanário Expresso do passado dia 27 de Setembro, na crónica de Ricardo Reis intitulada "A busca do lucro".
segunda-feira, setembro 16, 2024
Ver para lá do que se conhece (parte V)
"When someone loses part of a leg, a prosthetic can make it easier to get around. But most prosthetics are static, cumbersome, and hard to move. A new neural interface connects a bionic limb to nerve endings in the thigh, allowing the limb to be controlled by the brain. The new device, described in a report in Nature Medicine, could help people with lower-leg amputations feel as if their prosthesis is part of them.
...
Getting the neural interface hooked up to a prosthetic takes two steps. First, patients undergo surgery. Following a lower-leg amputation, portions of shin and calf muscle still remain. The operation connects shin muscle, which contracts to make the ankle flex upward, to calf muscle, which counteracts this movement. The prosthetic can also be fitted at this point. Reattaching the remnants of these muscles can enable the prosthetic to move more dynamically. It can also reduce phantom limb pain, and patients are less likely to trip and fall.
...
In step two, surface electrodes measure nerve activity from the brain to the calf and shin muscles, indicating an intention to move the lower leg. A small computer in the bionic leg decodes those nerve signals and moves the leg accordingly, allowing the patient to move the limb more naturally."
Uma ilustração do que é a destruição criativa a funcionar. Não se pode dizer que não avisámos.
Parte I, parte II, parte III e parte IV.
Trechos retirados de MIT Technology Review, September/October 2024
domingo, agosto 18, 2024
"Um empresário investe lucros, não empréstimos"
"P - Isso leva-nos a outra questão: as empresas têm uma fiscalidade justa?R - Se comparar a tributação efetiva em média - não a nominal -, com as empresas europeias com quem nos devemos comparar, como Áustria, Bélgica, Holanda e Espanha, pagamos mais 6 pontos percentuais de IRC. É colossal a diferença, e destrói a capacidade de acumular parte dos lucros para investir. Um empresário investe lucros, não empréstimos. Temos as empresas insuficientemente capitalizadas porque temos ideias feitas sobre o lucro. Na Europa a tributação das empresas é 19%, em Portugal 25%."
Sem investimento não há inovação, não há subida na escala de valor. Por isso, a oferta vai-se comodificando, a margem vai-se corroendo e entra-se numa corrida para o fundo, inexorável.
Recordar o que a Mariana não sabe acerca dos custos do futuro. No entanto, se lerem este último link, olhem para o exemplo da Toyota. A Toyota não fala dos lucros passados, fala dos lucros futuros. Sim, é preciso acumular capital porque os lucros de um ano não chegam para fazer todos os investimentos necessários. Como o futuro é incerto, é preciso acumular uma parte antes de começar, para evitar surpresas. reservas. Esse montante é parte do lucro líquido que não é distribuído aos accionistas na forma de dividendos, mas sim retido pela empresa para financiar futuros investimentos, expansão, ou para cobrir possíveis contingências. Em Portugal, as reservas constituídas a partir dos lucros não são directamente taxadas de forma diferente dos próprios lucros. A tributação ocorre sobre o lucro líquido da empresa antes de qualquer alocação para reservas.
Trecho retirado do caderno de Economia do semanário Expresso do passado dia 15 de Agosto, "A sociedade desconfia do lucro, e por isso quer taxá-lo", uma entrevista com Augusto Mateus.
sexta-feira, maio 10, 2024
Os custos do futuro, aquela parte que a Mariana não percebe
No FT do passado dia 9 de Maio, "Toyota projects 20% annual profit fall":
"Toyota has forecast a 20 per cent decline in annual profit as the world's largest carmaker increases spending in electric vehicles and artificial intelligence in an attempt to create a "game changer" to compete against Chinese rivals."
Aquela parte que Mariana Mortágua não percebe, os custos do futuro.
"Toyota chief executive Koji Sato on Wednesday said the Japanese group would focus on "cementing its position" and ensure growth by reshaping its hardware-focused business model to include mobility services and software."
Recordo Drucker acerca de Schumpeter:
"As soon, however, as one shifts from the axiom of an unchanging, self-contained, closed economy to Schumpeter's dynamic, growing, moving, changing economy, what is called profit is on longer immoral. It becomes a moral imperative. Indeed, the question then is no longer the question that agitated the classicists and still agitated Keynes: How can the economy be structured to minimize the bribe of the functionless surplus called profit that has to be handed over to the capitalist to keep the economy going?
The question in Schumpeter's economics is always, Is there sufficient profit? Is there adequate capital formation to provide for the costs of the future, the costs of staying in business, the costs of "creative destruction"?
This alone makes Schumpeter's economic model the only one that can serve as the starting point for the economic policies we need."
A seguir ao 25 de Abril quantas empresas industriais nacionalizadas foram capazes de investir no seu futuro?
terça-feira, junho 27, 2023
Incerteza e desequilibrio
"Principle 1. Value is created in production and innovation and realized in exchange.
...
Principle 2. Value is appropriated through competitive bargaining and pure bargaining.
...
Principle 3. Firms allow stakeholders to create value by offering a governance form to resolve the pure bargaining over the surplus created by team production and team innovation.
...
The fundamental insight to emerge from juxtaposing these analyses [Moi ici: De Schumpeter and Knight] is that (Ricardian) rent is a cross-sectional/equilibrium concept that explains payments above opportunity costs that derive from heterogeneity of individual resources, while (Schumpeterian) profit is a dynamic/disequilibrium concept that explains payments above opportunity costs that derive from heterogeneity of resource bundles.
...
In Schumpeter's (1934) analysis, profit is possible when the entrepreneur moves the economy away from a prevailing competitive equilibrium by combining resources in a new way. More specifically, entrepreneurship is the act of bringing new combinations to market alternatively referred to as "innovation." If (and only if) the new way of combining resources creates more value than before, this will result in an economic profit: the entrepreneur only needs to pay resource suppliers their opportunity costs and appropriates the residual.
...
There are three important things to note about entrepreneurial profit. First, as our simple example demonstrates, it does not require heterogeneous resources. The reason for the entrepreneurial profit is not that there is something special about any of the resources that are used, but that there is something special about the bundle of resources. Second, note that Schumpeter's analysis only holds under conditions of uncertainty (Knight, 1921). Without uncertainty, why would the entrepreneur be able to appropriate the value created by the bundle of resources that she assembles? The assumption is that the entrepreneur, in organizing resources in a new way, only needs to pay resource suppliers their opportunity costs. However, why would the residual between these opportunity costs and the prices paid for the new product not be subject to ex-ante bargaining between the entrepreneur and resource suppliers? In Knight's view, if the residual was generally anticipated, this is exactly what would happen: the economy would adjust its relative prices and the profit opportunity would disappear. Knight's fundamental insight was that entrepreneurial profit can only result when it is not generally anticipated. This insight also leads into the third point about entrepreneurial profit, which is that it is likely to be a temporary phenomenon. This is the case because once the entrepreneur's innovation proves successful, the previous uncertainty is eliminated. In that sense, we can understand successful innovation as revealing new productive knowledge. Unless there are "isolating mechanisms" that prevent the dissemination of this new productive knowledge, the economic system will adapt: imitation will eliminate the entrepreneurial profit. I
...
Principle 4. Profit is a disequilibrium phenomenon resulting from heterogeneity of resource bundles.
Principle 5. Rent is an equilibrium phenomenon resulting from heterogeneity of individual resources.
...
Principle 6. Economic profit is the result of resource bundles characterized by (1) novelty, (2) unique complementarities, and/or (3) scale advantages.
...
Principle 7. Stakeholder payments are the sum of (1) opportunity costs, (2) rent payments, and (3) the outcome of pure bargaining over economic profit."
Como se cria o desquilibrio? Com a inovação. O que é preciso para criar inovação?
Como se deslinda a incerteza? Só pondo a pele em jogo. Desconfiar de teóricos que sabem onde os outros devem pôr o seu dinheiro.
Acerca da incerteza, li há dias uma frase que era mais ou menos: Depressão é olhar para trás. A ansiedade é olhar para a frente. E depois: "Anxiety is the price you pay for your freedom."
Trechos retirados de "Value, rent, and profit: A stakeholder resource-based theory" de J. W. Stoelhorst.
quarta-feira, abril 28, 2021
Sem resultados pelos quais responder não há skin-in-the-game (parte II)
Na parte I, quando me referia a Schumpeter, era acerca disto:
"Although these models [Moi ici: Teoria neoclássica] have yielded some illuminating insights, they ignore essential aspects of Schumpeterian competition-the fact that there are winners and losers and that the process is one of continuing disequilibrium. An evolutionary analysis seems required if the model is to recognize those facts.In an evolutionary theory of the sort that we develop, the nature of the “economic problem" is fundamentally different from that depicted in contemporary orthodox theory. The latter views choice sets as known and given. The economic problem is to pick the best possible production and distribution, given that set of alternatives. The function of competition is to get- or help to get- the signals and incentives right. In evolutionary theory, choice sets are not given and the consequences of any choice are unknown. Although some choices may be clearly worse than others, there is no choice that is clearly best ex-ante. Given this assumption, one would expect to see a diversity of firm behavior in real situations. Firms facing the same market signals respond differently, and more so if the signals are relatively novel. Indeed, one would hope for such a diversity of responses in order that a range of possible behaviors might be explored. One function of competition, in the structural sense of many firms, then would be to make possible that diversity. Another function of competition, in this more active sense, is to reward and enhance the choices that prove good in practice and to suppress the bad ones. Over the long run, one hopes, the competitive system would promote firms that choose well on the average and would eliminate, or force reform upon, firms that consistently make mistakes.In this view, the market system is (in part) a device for conducting and evaluating experiments in economic behavior and organization. The meaning and merit of competition must be appraised accordingly. … We should understand as "development," he wrote," only such changes in economic life as are not forced upon it from without but arise by its own initiative, from within" (p . 63). The key development process he identified as the "carrying out of new combinations," and in the competitive economy "new combinations mean the competitive elimination of the old" (pp. 66-67). It is the entrepreneur who carries out new combinations, who " 'leads' the means of production into new channels". and may thereby reap an entrepreneurial profit. "He also leads in the sense that he draws other producers in his branch after him. But as they are his competitors, who first reduce and then annihilate his profit, this is, as it were, leadership against one's own will""
Quando a AT ou a classe política olha para as empresas esquece esta volatilidade, esquece esta volubilidade.
Trechos retirados de "An evolutionary theory of economic change" de Richard R. Nelson.
quinta-feira, março 18, 2021
"man’s near- God- like quality of being able to create new things"
"Schumpeterian elements are deeply embedded in the German economics tradition. A focus on learning and progress, very clear in Leibniz and Wolff, is based on the Gottesähnlichkeit of man: man’s near- God- like quality of being able to create new things. Being born in the image of God meant that it was man’s pleasurable duty to invent. At its most fundamental level, the contrast between English and German economics lies in the view of the human mind. To John Locke, man’s mind is a blank slate — a tabula rasa — with which he is born, and which passively receives impressions throughout life. To Leibniz, man has an active mind that constantly compares experiences with established schemata, a mind both noble and creative.
Of Adam Smith’s ideas, the one most repudiated by German economists was that man is essentially an animal that has learned to barter. In the tradition that followed Smith, ideas and inventions have been produced outside the economic system. Karl Menger, the founder of the Austrian School of Economics, dedicated a whole chapter in his Grundrisse to refute Smith’s view on this point. In the German tradition, including Marx and Schumpeter, the view is that man is an animal who has learned to invent. Nietzsche later added the point that man is the only animal that can keep promises, and therefore creates laws and institutions. Putting these elements together, we have an impressionistic picture of what differentiates English from German economics — barter and ‘metaphysical speculation’, on the one hand, and production and institutions, on the other."
Trecho retirado de "The Visionary Realism of German Economics: From the Thirty Years' War to the Cold War".
domingo, maio 05, 2019
Muito mais do que 27 segundos e muito menos do que 545 reais
o capitalismo transformando 5 reais em 550 em 27 segundos pic.twitter.com/8u99D04HDs— enxadrista burguês (@deonvidi) May 3, 2019
"As soon, however, as one shifts from the axiom of an unchanging, self-contained, closed economy to Schumpeter's dynamic, growing, moving, changing economy, what is called profit is on longer immoral. It becomes a moral imperative. Indeed, the question then is no longer the question that agitated the classicists and still agitated Keynes: How can the economy be structured to minimize the bribe of the functionless surplus called profit that has to be handed over to the capitalist to keep the economy going?.The question in Schumpeter's economics is always, Is there sufficient profit? Is there adequate capital formation to provide for the costs of the future, the costs of staying in business, the costs of "creative destruction"?This alone makes Schumpeter's economic model the only one that can serve as the starting point for the economic policies we need. Clearly the Keynesian - or classicist - treatment of innovation as being "outside," and in fact peripheral to, the economy and with minimum impact on it, can no longer be maintained (if it ever could have been). The basic question of economic theory and economic policy, especially in highly developed countries, is clearly: How can capital formation and productivity be maintained so that rapid technological change as well as employment can be sustained? What is the minimum profit needed to defray the costs of the future? What is the minimum profit needed, above all, to maintain jobs and to create new ones?"...BTW, "And it is a total fallacy that, as Keynes implies, optimising the short term creates the right long-term future."Trecho registado aqui no blogue em 2010 em "Lucro: O custo do futuro"
quarta-feira, março 13, 2019
Curiosidade do dia
"The market process can be viewed as a search process that never stops for any participant. Since all market participants are engaged in this search process, the market in effect creates the knowledge needed by buyers and sellers to act: “. . . the whole organization of a market mainly serves the distribution of information according to which the buyer has to act” (Hayek)
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Kirzner developed a helpful way of describing the market mechanism
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The market process is driven by entrepreneurs’ continuous search for profit opportunities. “The necessity to realize profits compels an entrepreneur to adapt as quickly and completely as possible to the desires of buyers (on the goods market) and sellers (on the resource market)” (Mises).
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The result is what Schumpeter calls a process of “creative destruction” in the economy in which entrepreneurial activity leads to the continual supplanting of existing patterns of production by new ones."
quarta-feira, outubro 19, 2016
Pense nisto
"Every product is born with an expiration date. Why? The world is constantly changing. [Moi ici: Quantos empresários percebem isto e as suas implicações?] There are countless examples of this: environmental concerns push people to consider eco-friendly products, new technologies offer new ways to solve people’s problems, trends in fashion and human behavior bring products in and out of favor, and so on. The fact that all products can expire is unsettling for innovators until they realize that they don’t have to let change come to them. They can be proactive and be instruments of change..
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Apple didn’t create the iPhone as a response to declining iPod sales—to the contrary. Apple began development of the iPhone four years before sales of the iPod were their highest.
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For many businesses, this type of thinking is unheard of, even counterintuitive. Why would Apple pour a tremendous amount of money into researching and developing a new product that would kill its top seller? Even more interesting, Apple had never made a phone before. It would have to develop new technology, new intellectual property, and new manufacturing processes - completely from scratch! Had Apple’s management lost its mind?"
Pense nisto para evitar ter de correr atrás do prejuízo com as calças na mão.
Trechos retirados do livro de Alan Klement, "When Coffee and Kale Compete":
sexta-feira, agosto 19, 2016
Deformação profissional
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Gerou-me algum sentimento de tristeza...
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Primeiro, fez-me lembrar Schumpeter (trecho que começa aos 10 minutos)
- o antigo emigrante que comprou antigas marinhas e que há 15 anos se dedica à aquacultura criando robalos e douradas. A certa altura começa a queixar-se: antigamente vendia até 7 toneladas de peixe por semana. Agora, por causa dos concorrentes gregos, vende 300 a 500 kg por semana no Verão e cerca de 100 kg no Inverno
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Depois, olhei para aquele empresário de camisa aberta, a distribuir ração - que ração será aquela? - olhei para aquele balde merdoso e para aquela espécie de colher de tolva e choquei com Schumpeter e os custos do futuro. Uma das primeiras lições que aprendi com Peter Drucker - os custos do futuro. Quantos euros aquele empresário terá posto de lado para fazer face aos custos do futuro? Para investir em investigação sobre rações, sobre produtividade em viveiros. Para investir em marketing, ...
- A jornalista pergunta-lhe algo acerca da "prateleira", acerca da montra que ele usa e ele responde "vendo através do amigo Paixão"...
- Pequenas grandes empresas (Dezembro de 2011)
- Querem lá saber das migalhas da TSU (Setembro de 2011)
- Isto é Mongo, isto é o Estranhistão, isto é o futuro, isto é o século XXI e isto é belo! (Junho de 2013)
- A propósito de ostras e salinicultura (Agosto de 2014)
sábado, julho 11, 2015
Não é novidade nenhuma
"“The main source of the productivity slowdown is not so much a slowing of innovation by the most globally advanced firms, but rather a slowing of the pace at which innovations spread out throughout the economy - a breakdown of the diffusion machine,” the OECD said.Trechos retirados de "OECD: Broken “Diffusion Machine” Is Slowing Productivity"
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But why are innovations not spreading as quickly as before? One key reason appears to be that the process of “creative destruction” identified by Austrian economist Joseph Schumpeter as essential to capitalism’s dynamism appears to have lost some of its ferocity. In the OECD’s words, “market selection is weak.”
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One reason for that is government policy, which the OECD said favors incumbents across a whole range of areas, from regulations designed to protect the environment, to taxation. As a result, older firms that suffer from low productivity growth endure, often “trapping” workers in jobs for which they are over qualified.
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“High rates of skill mismatch often coincide with the presence of many small and old firms,” the OECD said. “These firms are often unproductive and tend to be harmful for aggregate productivity to the extent that they absorb valuable resources, thereby constraining the growth of more innovative firms.”

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