A parte que falta

"Ao mesmo tempo, quando uma empresa tem lucro, ela vai atrair a atenção de outras empresas e potenciais empresários, que querem, também eles, ter lucro. Eles vão aprender o que ela faz bem, corrigir o que ela faz mal e pagar mais em salários para atrair os seus trabalhadores. A empresa vai reagir, e todos eles vão competir em busca deste lucro. Em última instância, elas vão baixar os preços, a forma clássica de roubar clientes à concorrência. Desde que haja lucro, uma delas pode cobrar um pouquinho menos e capturar parte desse lucro. Neste processo dinâmico e fervilhante o resultado final é que o lucro tende a desaparecer.

...

A busca determinada e obsessiva da empresa pelo lucro converte-se na proteção desse lucro. Se ela conseguir impedir que outros entrem no seu mercado, se ela sabotar as suas tentativas de inovar, se ela convencer governantes a bloquearem a entrada de concorrentes com regulamentos e licenças, então ela vai conseguir manter o seu lucro. Gastar recursos para impedir a pressão insuportável da concorrência é um desperdício da perspetiva da sociedade, mas vale a pena da perspetiva do empresário. O paradoxo do lucro vem com outro paradoxo: o maior inimigo do capitalismo são os capitalistas."

No primeiro trecho o autor retrata bem aquilo a que eu chamo aqui de "a doença anglo-saxónica". Por exemplo em Portanto, cuidado com pedintes que ameaçam sair da União Europeia. 

No segundo trecho o autor refere aquilo que na blogosfera já foi classificado. Por exemplo em A minha primeira lei sobre a concorrência?

É claro que o autor escreveu o texto para suportar a sua ideia sobre problemas na União Europeia, não necessariamente para ser exaustivo sobre o tema. Aqui e agora, com outro propósito, posso acrescentar: não esquecer a destruição criativa, a pior coisa que pode acontecer num mercado de cronies onde os "suspeitos habituais" operam é aparecerem actores novos com "truques" completamente diferentes e que acabam por seduzir os clientes, mesmo com produtos mais caros. O cronyism refere-se a uma situação em que indivíduos em posições de poder favorecem os seus amigos, associados ou apoiantes (companheiros), dando-lhes empregos, contratos ou outras vantagens, independentemente das suas qualificações. O cronyism não gosta deste tipo de outsiders.

O texto descreve como a competição incessante tende a reduzir os lucros das empresas, descrevendo um ciclo onde as empresas competem para atrair trabalhadores e baixar preços, o que leva à erosão dos lucros.O texto também critica a tendência das empresas em proteger os seus lucros, mesmo que isso envolva práticas anticompetitivas, como influenciar regulamentação ou bloquear a entrada de novos concorrentes. Contudo, uma falha importante no texto é a falta de consideração da "destruição criativa", um conceito central da teoria económica de Joseph Schumpeter.

Schumpeter argumenta que o verdadeiro motor do capitalismo não é apenas a competição tradicional, mas a destruição criativa, onde inovações rompem os mercados existentes, eliminam empresas ineficientes e criam novas oportunidades de lucro. Isso significa que, mesmo quando empresas estabelecidas tentam proteger os seus lucros e bloquear a concorrência, forças disruptivas inevitavelmente emergem para quebrar esses equilíbrios, seja por meio de novas tecnologias, modelos de negócio inovadores ou mudanças radicais nas preferências dos consumidores.

Sempre que uma Efacec ou uma TAP é salva com dinheiro dos contribuintes, além dos gatinhos que morrem, temos valor a ser destruído, produtividade a ser baixada. DEIXEM AS EMPRESAS MORRER, CARAGO!

Trechos retirados do Caderno de Economia do semanário Expresso do passado dia 27 de Setembro, na crónica de Ricardo Reis intitulada "A busca do lucro". 

Ver para lá do que se conhece (parte V)

"When someone loses part of a leg, a prosthetic can make it easier to get around. But most prosthetics are static, cumbersome, and hard to move. A new neural interface connects a bionic limb to nerve endings in the thigh, allowing the limb to be controlled by the brain. The new device, described in a report in Nature Medicine, could help people with lower-leg amputations feel as if their prosthesis is part of them.

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Getting the neural interface hooked up to a prosthetic takes two steps. First, patients undergo surgery. Following a lower-leg amputation, portions of shin and calf muscle still remain. The operation connects shin muscle, which contracts to make the ankle flex upward, to calf muscle, which counteracts this movement. The prosthetic can also be fitted at this point. Reattaching the remnants of these muscles can enable the prosthetic to move more dynamically. It can also reduce phantom limb pain, and patients are less likely to trip and fall.

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In step two, surface electrodes measure nerve activity from the brain to the calf and shin muscles, indicating an intention to move the lower leg. A small computer in the bionic leg decodes those nerve signals and moves the leg accordingly, allowing the patient to move the limb more naturally."

Uma ilustração do que é a destruição criativa a funcionar. Não se pode dizer que não avisámos.

Parte I, parte II, parte III e parte IV.

Trechos retirados de MIT Technology Review, September/October 2024 

"Um empresário investe lucros, não empréstimos"

"P - Isso leva-nos a outra questão: as empresas têm uma fiscalidade justa? 

 R - Se comparar a tributação efetiva em média - não a nominal -, com as empresas europeias com quem nos devemos comparar, como Áustria, Bélgica, Holanda e Espanha, pagamos mais 6 pontos percentuais de IRC. É colossal a diferença, e destrói a capacidade de acumular parte dos lucros para investir. Um empresário investe lucros, não empréstimos. Temos as empresas insuficientemente capitalizadas porque temos ideias feitas sobre o lucro. Na Europa a tributação das empresas é 19%, em Portugal 25%."

Sem investimento não há inovação, não há subida na escala de valor. Por isso, a oferta vai-se comodificando, a margem vai-se corroendo e entra-se numa corrida para o fundo, inexorável.

Recordar o que a Mariana não sabe acerca dos custos do futuro. No entanto, se lerem este último link, olhem para o exemplo da Toyota. A Toyota não fala dos lucros passados, fala dos lucros futuros. Sim, é preciso acumular capital porque os lucros de um ano não chegam para fazer todos os investimentos necessários. Como o futuro é incerto, é preciso acumular uma parte antes de começar, para evitar surpresas. reservas. Esse montante é parte do lucro líquido que não é distribuído aos accionistas na forma de dividendos, mas sim retido pela empresa para financiar futuros investimentos, expansão, ou para cobrir possíveis contingências. Em Portugal, as reservas constituídas a partir dos lucros não são directamente taxadas de forma diferente dos próprios lucros. A tributação ocorre sobre o lucro líquido da empresa antes de qualquer alocação para reservas.

Trecho retirado do caderno de Economia do semanário Expresso do passado dia 15 de Agosto, "A sociedade desconfia do lucro, e por isso quer taxá-lo", uma entrevista com Augusto Mateus.

Os custos do futuro, aquela parte que a Mariana não percebe

No FT do passado dia 9 de Maio, "Toyota projects 20% annual profit fall":

"Toyota has forecast a 20 per cent decline in annual profit as the world's largest carmaker increases spending in electric vehicles and artificial intelligence in an attempt to create a "game changer" to compete against Chinese rivals."

Aquela parte que Mariana Mortágua não percebe, os custos do futuro.

"Toyota chief executive Koji Sato on Wednesday said the Japanese group would focus on "cementing its position" and ensure growth by reshaping its hardware-focused business model to include mobility services and software."

Recordo Drucker acerca de Schumpeter:

"As soon, however, as one shifts from the axiom of an unchanging, self-contained, closed economy to Schumpeter's dynamic, growing, moving, changing economy, what is called profit is on longer immoral. It becomes a moral imperative. Indeed, the question then is no longer the question that agitated the classicists and still agitated Keynes: How can the economy be structured to minimize the bribe of the functionless surplus called profit that has to be handed over to the capitalist to keep the economy going?

The question in Schumpeter's economics is always, Is there sufficient profit? Is there adequate capital formation to provide for the costs of the future, the costs of staying in business, the costs of "creative destruction"?

This alone makes Schumpeter's economic model the only one that can serve as the starting point for the economic policies we need."

A seguir ao 25 de Abril quantas empresas industriais nacionalizadas foram capazes de investir no seu futuro?

Incerteza e desequilibrio

"Principle 1. Value is created in production and innovation and realized in exchange.

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Principle 2. Value is appropriated through competitive bargaining and pure bargaining.

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Principle 3. Firms allow stakeholders to create value by offering a governance form to resolve the pure bargaining over the surplus created by team production and team innovation.

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The fundamental insight to emerge from juxtaposing these analyses [Moi ici: De Schumpeter and Knight] is that (Ricardian) rent is a cross-sectional/equilibrium concept that explains payments above opportunity costs that derive from heterogeneity of individual resources, while (Schumpeterian) profit is a dynamic/disequilibrium concept that explains payments above opportunity costs that derive from heterogeneity of resource bundles.

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In Schumpeter's (1934) analysis, profit is possible when the entrepreneur moves the economy away from a prevailing competitive equilibrium by combining resources in a new way. More specifically, entrepreneurship is the act of bringing new combinations to market alternatively referred to as "innovation." If (and only if) the new way of combining resources creates more value than before, this will result in an economic profit: the entrepreneur only needs to pay resource suppliers their opportunity costs and appropriates the residual. 

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There are three important things to note about entrepreneurial profit. First, as our simple example demonstrates, it does not require heterogeneous resources. The reason for the entrepreneurial profit is not that there is something special about any of the resources that are used, but that there is something special about the bundle of resources. Second, note that Schumpeter's analysis only holds under conditions of uncertainty (Knight, 1921). Without uncertainty, why would the entrepreneur be able to appropriate the value created by the bundle of resources that she assembles? The assumption is that the entrepreneur, in organizing resources in a new way, only needs to pay resource suppliers their opportunity costs. However, why would the residual between these opportunity costs and the prices paid for the new product not be subject to ex-ante bargaining between the entrepreneur and resource suppliers? In Knight's view, if the residual was generally anticipated, this is exactly what would happen: the economy would adjust its relative prices and the profit opportunity would disappear. Knight's fundamental insight was that entrepreneurial profit can only result when it is not generally anticipated. This insight also leads into the third point about entrepreneurial profit, which is that it is likely to be a temporary phenomenon. This is the case because once the entrepreneur's innovation proves successful, the previous uncertainty is eliminated. In that sense, we can understand successful innovation as revealing new productive knowledge. Unless there are "isolating mechanisms" that prevent the dissemination of this new productive knowledge, the economic system will adapt: imitation will eliminate the entrepreneurial profit. I

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Principle 4. Profit is a disequilibrium phenomenon resulting from heterogeneity of resource bundles.

Principle 5. Rent is an equilibrium phenomenon resulting from heterogeneity of individual resources.

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Principle 6. Economic profit is the result of resource bundles characterized by (1) novelty, (2) unique complementarities, and/or (3) scale advantages.

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Principle 7. Stakeholder payments are the sum of (1) opportunity costs, (2) rent payments, and (3) the outcome of pure bargaining over economic profit."

Como se cria o desquilibrio? Com a inovação. O que é preciso para criar inovação?

Como se deslinda a incerteza? Só pondo a pele em jogo. Desconfiar de teóricos que sabem onde os outros devem pôr o seu dinheiro. 

Acerca da incerteza, li há dias uma frase que era mais ou menos: Depressão é olhar para trás. A ansiedade é olhar para a frente. E depois: "Anxiety is the price you pay for your freedom."

Trechos retirados de "Value, rent, and profit: A stakeholder resource-based theory" de J. W. Stoelhorst.  

Sem resultados pelos quais responder não há skin-in-the-game (parte II)

Na parte I, quando me referia a Schumpeter, era acerca disto: 

"Although these models [Moi ici: Teoria neoclássica] have yielded some illuminating insights, they ignore essential aspects of Schumpeterian competition-the fact that there are winners and losers and that the process is one of continuing disequilibrium. An evolutionary analysis seems required if the model is to recognize those facts.

In an evolutionary theory of the sort that we develop, the nature of the “economic problem" is fundamentally different from that depicted in contemporary orthodox theory. The latter views choice sets as known and given. The economic problem is to pick the best possible production and distribution, given that set of alternatives. The function of competition is to get- or help to get- the signals and incentives right. In evolutionary theory, choice sets are not given and the consequences of any choice are unknown. Although some choices may be clearly worse than others, there is no choice that is clearly best ex-ante. Given this assumption, one would expect to see a diversity of firm behavior in real situations. Firms facing the same market signals respond differently, and more so if the signals are relatively novel. Indeed, one would hope for such a diversity of responses in order that a range of possible behaviors might be explored. One function of competition, in the structural sense of many firms, then would be to make possible that diversity. Another function of competition, in this more active sense, is to reward and enhance the choices that prove good in practice and to suppress the bad ones. Over the long run, one hopes, the competitive system would promote firms that choose well on the average and would eliminate, or force reform upon, firms that consistently make mistakes.

In this view, the market system is (in part) a device for conducting and evaluating experiments in economic behavior and organization. The meaning and merit of competition must be appraised accordingly. … We should understand as "development," he wrote," only such changes in economic life as are not forced upon it from without but arise by its own initiative, from within" (p . 63). The key development process he identified as the "carrying out of new combinations," and in the competitive economy "new combinations mean the competitive elimination of the old" (pp. 66-67). It is the entrepreneur who carries out new combinations, who " 'leads' the means of production into new channels". and may thereby reap an entrepreneurial profit. "He also leads in the sense that he draws other producers in his branch after him. But as they are his competitors, who first reduce and then annihilate his profit, this is, as it were, leadership against one's own will""

Quando a AT ou a classe política olha para as empresas esquece esta volatilidade, esquece esta volubilidade.

Trechos retirados de "An evolutionary theory of economic change" de Richard R. Nelson.

"man’s near- God- like quality of being able to create new things"

 

"Schumpeterian elements are deeply embedded in the German economics tradition. A focus on learning and progress, very clear in Leibniz and Wolff, is based on the Gottesähnlichkeit of man: man’s near- God- like quality of being able to create new things. Being born in the image of God meant that it was man’s pleasurable duty to invent. At its most fundamental level, the contrast between English and German economics lies in the view of the human mind. To John Locke, man’s mind is a blank slate — a tabula rasa — with which he is born, and which passively receives impressions throughout life. To Leibniz, man has an active mind that constantly compares experiences with established schemata, a mind both noble and creative.

Of Adam Smith’s ideas, the one most repudiated by German economists was that man is essentially an animal that has learned to barter. In the tradition that followed Smith, ideas and inventions have been produced outside the economic system. Karl Menger, the founder of the Austrian School of Economics, dedicated a whole chapter in his Grundrisse to refute Smith’s view on this point. In the German tradition, including Marx and Schumpeter, the view is that man is an animal who has learned to invent. Nietzsche later added the point that man is the only animal that can keep promises, and therefore creates laws and institutions. Putting these elements together, we have an impressionistic picture of what differentiates English from German economics — barter and ‘metaphysical speculation’, on the one hand, and production and institutions, on the other."

Trecho retirado de  "The Visionary Realism of German Economics: From the Thirty Years' War to the Cold War".

Muito mais do que 27 segundos e muito menos do que 545 reais

o capitalismo transformando 5 reais em 550 em 27 segundos pic.twitter.com/8u99D04HDs

— enxadrista burguês (@deonvidi) May 3, 2019

Muito mais do que 27 segundos... é toda uma vida a criar uma marca, cuidar dela e fazê-la crescer.

Pensar que as contas se fazem só com o passado, 5 reais, e pensar que (550-5 = 545) reais é tudo lucro, é esquecer os custos do futuro.

E volto a Schumpeter e ao princípio dos meus anos 90... li isto na recepção de uma empresa, antes de uma entrevista de emprego que, graças a Deus, não deu em nada:

"As soon, however, as one shifts from the axiom of an unchanging, self-contained, closed economy to Schumpeter's dynamic, growing, moving, changing economy, what is called profit is on longer immoral. It becomes a moral imperative. Indeed, the question then is no longer the question that agitated the classicists and still agitated Keynes: How can the economy be structured to minimize the bribe of the functionless surplus called profit that has to be handed over to the capitalist to keep the economy going?.The question in Schumpeter's economics is always, Is there sufficient profit? Is there adequate capital formation to provide for the costs of the future, the costs of staying in business, the costs of "creative destruction"?This alone makes Schumpeter's economic model the only one that can serve as the starting point for the economic policies we need. Clearly the Keynesian - or classicist - treatment of innovation as being "outside," and in fact peripheral to, the economy and with minimum impact on it, can no longer be maintained (if it ever could have been). The basic question of economic theory and economic policy, especially in highly developed countries, is clearly: How can capital formation and productivity be maintained so that rapid technological change as well as employment can be sustained? What is the minimum profit needed to defray the costs of the future? What is the minimum profit needed, above all, to maintain jobs and to create new ones?"...BTW, "And it is a total fallacy that, as Keynes implies, optimising the short term creates the right long-term future."

Trecho registado aqui no blogue em 2010 em "Lucro: O custo do futuro"

Curiosidade do dia

Num único subcapítulo do livro, "The Market Process" de Wulff Plinke e Ian Wilkinson, capítulo incluído no livro "Fundamentals of Business-to-Business Marketing - Mastering Business Markets" editado por Michael Kleinaltenkamp, Wulff Plinke, Ian Wilkinson e Ingmar Geiger, um festival de liberalismo económico:

"The market process can be viewed as a search process that never stops for any participant. Since all market participants are engaged in this search process, the market in effect creates the knowledge needed by buyers and sellers to act: “. . . the whole organization of a market mainly serves the distribution of information according to which the buyer has to act” (Hayek)
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Kirzner developed a helpful way of describing the market mechanism
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The market process is driven by entrepreneurs’ continuous search for profit opportunities. “The necessity to realize profits compels an entrepreneur to adapt as quickly and completely as possible to the desires of buyers (on the goods market) and sellers (on the resource market)” (Mises).
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The result is what Schumpeter calls a process of “creative destruction” in the economy in which entrepreneurial activity leads to the continual supplanting of existing patterns of production by new ones."

Pense nisto

"Every product is born with an expiration date. Why? The world is constantly changing. [Moi ici: Quantos empresários percebem isto e as suas implicações?] There are countless examples of this: environmental concerns push people to consider eco-friendly products, new technologies offer new ways to solve people’s problems, trends in fashion and human behavior bring products in and out of favor, and so on. The fact that all products can expire is unsettling for innovators until they realize that they don’t have to let change come to them. They can be proactive and be instruments of change.
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Apple didn’t create the iPhone as a response to declining iPod sales—to the contrary. Apple began development of the iPhone four years before sales of the iPod were their highest.
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For many businesses, this type of thinking is unheard of, even counterintuitive. Why would Apple pour a tremendous amount of money into researching and developing a new product that would kill its top seller? Even more interesting, Apple had never made a phone before. It would have to develop new technology, new intellectual property, and new manufacturing processes - completely from scratch! Had Apple’s management lost its mind?"

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Pense nisto para evitar ter de correr atrás do prejuízo com as calças na mão.

Trechos retirados do livro de Alan Klement, "When Coffee and Kale Compete":

Deformação profissional

Vi este documentário DOP Sal | 10 Jun, 2015 | Episódio 2 na última terça-feira à noite na RTP3.
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Gerou-me algum sentimento de tristeza...
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Primeiro, fez-me lembrar Schumpeter (trecho que começa aos 10 minutos)

• o antigo emigrante que comprou antigas marinhas e que há 15 anos se dedica à aquacultura criando robalos e douradas. A certa altura começa a queixar-se: antigamente vendia até 7 toneladas de peixe por semana. Agora, por causa dos concorrentes gregos, vende 300 a 500 kg por semana no Verão e cerca de 100 kg no Inverno

Ao ouvir a referência aos gregos, automaticamente a minha mente confidenciou-me: muda de espécies, diferencia-te.
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Depois, olhei para aquele empresário de camisa aberta, a distribuir ração - que ração será aquela? - olhei para aquele balde merdoso e para aquela espécie de colher de tolva e choquei com Schumpeter e os custos do futuro. Uma das primeiras lições que aprendi com Peter Drucker - os custos do futuro. Quantos euros aquele empresário terá posto de lado para fazer face aos custos do futuro? Para investir em investigação sobre rações, sobre produtividade em viveiros. Para investir em marketing, ...

• A jornalista pergunta-lhe algo acerca da "prateleira", acerca da montra que ele usa e ele responde "vendo através do amigo Paixão"... 

E investimento em actividade comercial? E investimento em feiras? E investimento numa loja online para restaurantes?

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Demasiado mau...

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Depois, a partir do minuto 12:36 um empresário da construção civil no Luxemburgo e que comprou uma marina de sal.

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Depois, temos minutos de apresentação da arte de produção de sal artesanal e ... ficamos tristes até mais não quando percebemos que uma forma de produção de sal artesanal é escoada para salgar as estradas carregadas de neve da Europa Central. Sal que podia ser vendido com autenticidade e diferenciação é usado para espalhar nas estradas como uma vulgar e reles commodity. Mau demais!

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Recordar:

• Pequenas grandes empresas (Dezembro de 2011)
• Querem lá saber das migalhas da TSU (Setembro de 2011)
• Isto é Mongo, isto é o Estranhistão, isto é o futuro, isto é o século XXI e isto é belo! (Junho de 2013)
• A propósito de ostras e salinicultura (Agosto de 2014)

Uma pessoa já não pode ver um documentário em paz e sossego sem ser atazanado pela deformação profissional.

Não é novidade nenhuma

"“The main source of the productivity slowdown is not so much a slowing of innovation by the most globally advanced firms, but rather a slowing of the pace at which innovations spread out throughout the economy - a breakdown of the diffusion machine,” the OECD said.
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But why are innovations not spreading as quickly as before? One key reason appears to be that the process of “creative destruction” identified by Austrian economist Joseph Schumpeter as essential to capitalism’s dynamism appears to have lost some of its ferocity. In the OECD’s words, “market selection is weak.”
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One reason for that is government policy, which the OECD said favors incumbents across a whole range of areas, from regulations designed to protect the environment, to taxation. As a result, older firms that suffer from low productivity growth endure, often “trapping” workers in jobs for which they are over qualified.
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“High rates of skill mismatch often coincide with the presence of many small and old firms,” the OECD said. “These firms are often unproductive and tend to be harmful for aggregate productivity to the extent that they absorb valuable resources, thereby constraining the growth of more innovative firms.”

Trechos retirados de "OECD: Broken “Diffusion Machine” Is Slowing Productivity"

Ideias versus prática (parte I)

Ao ler "Business Strategy - Managing Uncertainty, Opportunity, and Enterprise" de  J.-C. Spender, há uma constante: a valorização da prática, da experimentação.
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Por exemplo:

"Debate is fine but practice is what matters
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Thus no theory can embrace all the issues a practice engages.
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Judgment is always necessary to reasoned practice, a view theorizing tries to deny.
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strategists are always working with particulars and so have limited interest in theoretical statements
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Doubt is key - we must remain open to the possibility that things are not what they seem."

Ao ler "The Innovator's Hypothesis: How Cheap Experiments Are Worth More than Good Ideas" de Michael Schrage encontro além de "Acerca de Keynes (parte II)" mais isto:

"Joseph Schumpeter. A brilliant rival to Keynes, he disagreed about the importance of ideas in making innovation happen. “Successful innovation…,” he wrote in 1928, “is a feat not of intellect but of will. Its difficulty consists in the resistance and uncertainties incident to doing what has not been done before. …”
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For Schumpeter, commitment to overcoming resistance and managing uncertainty—not cultivation of intellectual prowess—determines innovation outcomes. Ideas aren’t irrelevant to Schumpeter, who was arguably as much an intellectual elitist as Keynes. But he recognized their inherent inferiority to action when it comes to the marketplace. Aspiring entrepreneurs shouldn’t invest too much in inferior goods. Real innovators—real leaders—know that actions speak louder than words and behave accordingly."

Ao ler "Sometimes Being Wrong Can Be More Valuable Than Being Right", encontro o mesmo padrão:

"While the Gödel and Turing showed that logic was no longer absolute or infallible, its flaws were manageable and the systems they created in its place made the information age possible.  Out of the rubble of Aristotle’s logic, a new world was born.
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Entrepreneurs engaged in creative disruption keep the system humming along, so as long as we have innovation, there is no contradiction.  We do have rent seeking, such as car dealers lobbying against Tesla, which is a problem, but not an insurmountable one.
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In the process, we learned something important.  It’s not business per se that creates value, but innovation."

Dedicado às PMEs

Há dias, motivado por um postal de Tim Kastelle escrevi "E se Schumpeter voltasse agora?"
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Há bocado li este artigo de Nilofer Merchant "Innovation Isn't Tied to Size, but to Operating Rules" que também menciona a mudança de opinião de Schumpeter.
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Agora, leio algo que encadeia tudo isto com um exemplo concreto.
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A primeira vez que li algo sobre a marca Chobani registei-a neste postal (foi numa viagem de comboio até Famalicão, sentado num banco com uns polícias que teriam feito o turno da noite e ressonavam como gente grande).

"When I left there, I said I don’t know why, but I just want to buy it. An advisor of mine asked me if I was nuts. He used some nasty words to convince me not to think about it, because he really cared. He said that there is this humongous company that is getting out of the category, the plant, and the town, and if there were any value to the plant, they would know." (Moi ici: Como se houvesse um único caminho, uma única alternativa, uma única estratégia. Como se o mundo fosse uma massa homogénea, como se a via das multinacionais fosse a única... é toda uma mundividência que fica retratada com esta opinião. O mundo é muito mais rico!!!!)

"I spent the next 18 months trying to get the right yogurt recipe." (Moi ici: O vómito industrial da produção em massa é uma coisa... arte é outra. Como é que a sua empresa pode competir? Oferecendo o preço mais baixo ou algo mais?)

"On the tech side, little start-ups can do something magnificent. They don’t need too much in terms of plants and infrastructure. But I think the same thing can happen and will happen on the consumer goods side. As start-ups, in some ways we are in a better position than big corporations. We can make good products and be passionate and convince our consumers that they can like it."

Trechos retirados de "How Turkish 'Dairy Boy' Hamdi Ulukaya Started $600 Million Chobani"


BTW, neste artigo "Land of the corporate giants" o argumento é a eficiência e só a eficiência e, mesmo essa, parece que deixou de ser o que era. E, cada vez mais, há mais vida (outras propostas de valor) para lá do eficientismo.
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Agora ponham o eficientismo a competir com isto e isto, com o "Ikea effect".

E se Schumpeter voltasse agora?

A propósito deste postal "Two Reasons Why You Must Change Your Mind".
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Tim Kastelle relata a mudança de opinião de Schumpeter, entre 1909 e 1942, sobre a dimensão das empresas e a inovação.
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E se Schumpeter voltasse agora, voltaria a mudar de opinião?
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Acredito que sim!!!
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"This Week in the Future: Thousands and Thousands of Makers"

Nem Laffer nem Schumpeter

O João Miranda neste postal "Laffer ou Schumpeter?" defende que a queda no sector da construção se deve a um fenómeno de destruição schumpeteriana.
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Lamento, não posso concordar.
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A destruição "criativa" de Schumpeter acontece quando um concorrente aparece e "destrói" a concorrência por via de uma oferta considerada superior pela maioria do mercado. Por exemplo, o iphone liquidou a Nokia, ou a Ryanair liquidou quota de mercado a muitas companhias aéreas.
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Não creio que a evolução do sector da construção se possa explicar com Laffer ou com Schumpeter. 
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Procurando uma analogia com a biologia, parece-me mais o resultado de uma situação em que o consumo exaustivo e desenfreado de recursos por uma geração, destrói a capacidade do ecossistema sustentar a vida das gerações seguintes. 
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Foi mais uma espécie de ecocídio.

O nosso retrato, o retrato de uma economia socialista

Um excelente artigo. Quando acabo de ler um artigo e olho para a lista de referências bibliográficas que fui sublinhando ao longo da sua leitura... reforço, ou não, a opinião com que fiquei do conteúdo.
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"Variety, Product Quality and Creative Destruction" de Pier-Paolo Saviotti e Andreas Pyka, apresentado em Abril deste ano é um artigo que vale a pena ler e sobre o qual vale a pena reflectir.
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"We maintain that the meaning of creative destruction depends on the interaction of three trajectories, constituted by the growth of productive efficiency, (Moi ici: A trajectória que assenta na redução dos custos, na redução dos desperdícios, no denominador da equação da produtividade) the emergence of completely new sectors (Moi ici: A inovação disruptiva que não cabe dentro dos sectores tradicionais) and the growing output quality and differentiation of incumbent sectors.(Moi ici: Cuidado com o termo qualidade. Qualidade pode ser menos defeitos e qualidade pode ser mais atributos. O termo qualidade usa-se indistintamente. Aqui, mais qualidade é mais atributos)"
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"We analyze the problem by means of our TEVECON model of economic development in which demand and innovation co-evolve to create the disposable income required for consumers to be able to purchase new goods and services. (Moi ici: O nosso modelo económico... o modelo mental dos nossos políticos está podre, estamos a regressar ao tempo pré-Henry Ford. Quem trabalha não tem direito a consumir. Consumir é pecado! Trabalha-se para exportar para que outros consumam. Como os políticos e académicos só associam aumento da produtividade a aumento de eficiência... ficam limitados)  Thus, we generate and compare a number of possible development paths. In particular, we focus on two paths, one without output quality change (Moi ici: Uma via só dependente do aumento da eficiência, da redução dos custos) and another one with a pronounced degree of output quality change. (Moi ici: Uma via com aposta no numerador, na eficácia, na subida na escala de valor potencial) The results of our calculations show that the rate of growth of employment would be faster in the scenario without quality change than in the high quality change, (Moi ici: Quando o emprego é a prioridade a consequência vem a seguir) but that such an outcome would be obtained at the price of persistently low wages, competencies and human capital. We interpret these results as well as the concept of creative destruction in the context of a mechanism of economic development in which demand, innovation, competencies, education levels, wages and product prices co-evolve."
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"Creative destruction is perhaps the best known concept in Schumpeter's work. Intuitively the concept encompasses the processes of creation and of destruction. Creation is introduced by innovations which provide consumers with increased welfare, producers with profits and that contribute to economic growth. Yet such process of creation is inevitably accompanied by the destruction of a part of the existing order. However, beyond the above general representation on which most scholars could probably agree, to provide a more accurate interpretation of creative destruction is problematic. We can identify different meanings of the concept:

• 1) Substitution of pre-existing goods/services/technologies with newer and higher quality ones
• 2) Gradual maturation of incumbent sectors by (a) falling labour intensity of mature sectors, (b) falling rate of growth of demand for mature sectors, (c) gradually increasing competencies/skills and wages as a consequence of the rising product quality within mature sectors
• 3) Growing competition from emerging countries which acquire the capability to make the same goods and services as in highly developed countries bur at lower cost

Meaning N° 3 was probably not intended by Schumpeter but it has become of great significance in the present situation.

• 4) The changing income distribution amongst different social groups and countries depending on their ability to create and exploit innovations. Thus, following the industrial revolution some countries remained behind and became underdeveloped by not being able to access and to exploit emerging technologies. Also, in the present wave of globalization social groups based in developed countries and linked to mature technologies in which a growing competition is coming from emerging countries tend to experience a fall in their income per capita relative to that of other social groups linked to competencies and professions where a temporary monopoly of developed countries still prevails.

In this paper we will not discuss meanings 3) and 4) but we will focus on the impact of the balance between the emergence of new sectors and the increasing product quality and differentiation within incumbent sectors."
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Conclusões:
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"In this paper we discussed the concept of creative destruction in the light of a model of economic development based on innovation driven structural change. We showed that such a concept cannot have the simplistic interpretation of the substitution of the old by the new, but that a deeper interpretation of the concept requires us to take into account the joint effect of the three trajectories of (i) increasing productive efficiency, (ii) the emergence of completely new sectors; (iii) the increasing quality and differentiation of incumbent sectors. The long run development path of capitalist countries could not have occurred by means of just one of these trajectories alone. An economic system with a fixed number of sectors with homogeneous products in presence of growing productive efficiency would have collapsed if the bottleneck caused by the possibility to produce all demanded output with a falling proportion of the labour force had not been compensated by the emergence of completely new sectors and by the higher quality and differentiation of incumbent sectors. Yet these two compensating trajectories could have been created only by the surplus generated by the growing productive efficiency of incumbent sectors. (Moi ici: Claro que se o grosso do surplus gerado na economia portuguesa for para o Estado-cuco... estão a ver o filme)
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In this paper we showed the effect of different possible combinations of the three trajectories by focusing on two extreme cases, one without quality change and one with a pronounced degree of quality change. The results of our calculations show that the no quality change scenario could have produced a higher rate of growth of employment than the high quality scenario, but only at the cost of having persistently low wages, competencies and human capital in all sectors. (Moi ici: Num cenário de manutenção da qualidade-atributos, o aumento da eficiência seria a única via de melhoria. Nesse cenário, o aumento da produtividade só seria conseguido à custa do denominador... isto merece um postal... estou a ver o filme dos milhões a que o Estado português, ao longo de décadas, chamou investimento, mas nunca passou de estímulos a um mercado com procura saturada porque a oferta não se diferenciou o suficiente) We interpret these two scenarios as extreme cases defining a region of parameter space within which patterns of economic development similar to the observed ones could have occurred.
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Our results in this paperare compatible with mechanism of economic development in which increasing product quality and prices, higher competencies ad education levels, higher wages and income levels co-evolve to produce the pattern of capitalist economic development observed during the XXth century. (Moi ici: E que julgo ter sido abandonado ao apostar tudo na exportação, porque a velocidade de destruição promovida pelo factor 3 foi muito superior à velocidade de criação, por outro lado, políticos e académicos não percebem a criação de valor potencial, só conhecem preço e custo. Assim, tudo se conjugou para salvar o mais possível o status-quo, através da eficiência. É verdade que em alguns países esta aposta na exportação pode ter começado por uma simples imposição demográfica... ou por uma consequência natural de considerar a definição dos clientes-alvo uma variável e não um dado do problema)
In this context the concept of creative destruction does not systematically entail the substitution of old sectors by new ones but needs to include the effect of the emergence of new sectors and the increasing quality and differentiation of incumbent sectors. Both these two trajectories reduce the potentially destructive effect of growing productive efficiency and provide renewed avenues for creation. Thus, there is more creation than destruction, although various forms of destruction persist."
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O artigo é mesmo bom, tenho de voltar a ele.

Aprender com os outros

Somos um país de incumbentes!
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Somos um país que protege os instalados...
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Mika Maliranta em "Finland’s Path to the Global Productivity Frontier through Creative Destruction" conta-nos:
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"Without its intense restructuring since (Moi ici: A chamada destruição criativa de Schumpeter) the mid-1980s, Finland would have replicated Japan’s lost decade instead of having its now stellar performance. (Moi ici: Um país de incumbentes... protege os instalados)
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The change in Finnish productivity growth dynamics coincides with economy-wide deregulation, liberalization, and the opening up of Finland." (Moi ici: Poul, não nos deixes ficar mal)
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"By intensifying competition in both input and output markets, it provided new incentives for both individuals and companies; by relaxing resource constraints, improving allocative efficiency, and expanding markets, it brought about new opportunities."
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"Recent research has tried to find reasons for the prolonged slow productivity growth in Japan since the early 1990s; the lack of creative destruction is one plausible explanation. Fukao and Ug Kwon (2006) find that the reallocation of resources from low to high productivity firms has been marginal in Japan. Peek and Rosengren (2005) and Caballero, Hoshi, and Kashyap (2008) come to similar conclusions, which both studies attribute to malfunctioning financial markets patronizing inefficient incumbents and discouraging entry."
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"Entry, exit, and resource reallocation among continuing plants explain about one third of the overall productivity growth in Finnish manufacturing since 1975 and virtually all of the productivity acceleration since 1985. The main explanatory factors are increased competition and Finland’s deepening integration into the global economy, assisted on the “supply side” by education and innovation policies.
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(Moi ici: Como refere Diogo Vasconcelos... liberdade, disponibilidade para pensar diferente, arriscar, perder o pé, ter fé em si... é o que vem a seguir)
In a frontier economy, creative destruction is about experimentation, reallocation, and selection among individuals (particularly managers ) and businesses. Consequently, it brings about some personal discontinuities and uncertainties. It would, however, be a mistake to assume that creative destruction would have longer-term negative effects on life satisfaction. At least in Finland, it seems that restructuring has rather promoted perceived happiness. Finns arguably seem to understand that creative destruction provides new opportunities."
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E Sócrates queria copiar a Finlândia... nunca lhe ouvi uma palavra sobre as virtualidades da destruição criativa... só lhe ouvi dizer que era preciso torrar dinheiro para salvar as empresas e o emprego, nabices.

A treta do equilíbrio e a diferenciação inovadora

"to return to the idea of competition as a process of endogenous change driven by the differential behaviour of the competitors. A wide variety of economists have expressed their dissatisfaction with the equilibrium view in a number of ways, some less polite than others, (Moi ici: Só tolinhos académicos longe da vida real podem acreditar nessa treta do equilíbrio) and it will be as well to outline several of the main contributions. Thus, Morgenstern (1972) claims that competition as a word employed by economists has lost touch with reality simply because it has replaced struggle and rivalry with equilibrium. J.M. Clark (1961) in his major contribution to this literature began by claiming that the shift from equilibrium to process was the most challenging question in the theory of competition, and he suggested four broad elements necessary for effective competition: competent customers able to appraise accurately the competing products on offer; freedom of individuals and organizations to engage in any trade or activity; access to all the necessary means of production; and a climate of independence of attitude and strategy among firms in the industry."
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O que se segue é pura poesia, e está tão longe do que os media e a academia que faz parte dos painéis divulgam. Encostem-se e saboreiem o que é viver em Mongo:
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"Particularly interesting in his appraisal of competition theory is Georgescu-Roegen (1967) who points to the fact that, as normally portrayed, competition is absent within the industry and only takes place between industries,

the condition commonly labelled as a ‘perfectly competitive industry’ actually involves no competition at all. (p. 32)

Firms within a perfectly competitive industry only adjust passively to prices which are externally determined. As to what is needed in order to develop a theory of the competitive process we are encouraged to recognize that,

In every domain, but especially in economics, competition means in the first place trying to do things in a slightly different manner from all other individuals. (p. 33)

Here is an important clue as to how we are to proceed. We are to recognize that,

the most general form of competition among individual concerns is differentiation of product, involving a little innovation, not cut throat pricing. (p. 34) (Moi ici: Diferenciação é a solução)

Here is a major paradox: competition only becomes active when we allow a monopoly element premised upon the fact that firms are different, and scope for competition lies not in the number of firms but in the conditions creating diverse behaviour. (Moi ici: "Conditions creating diverse behaviour"... é o truque, fugir do Grande Planeador, apostar na biodiversidade... Hamel and Valikangas rule) In a sense, all the elements above were contained in Chamberlin’s Monopolistic Competition but for him the grip of equilibrium thinking was too strong. Brenner (1987) is also a notable contributor to this literature, with the emphasis being placed on bets upon new ideas and the insistence that,

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Businessmen pursue strategies to discover a combination of customers and services (Moi ici: Qual a cadeia da procura? Quem são os clientes-alvo e o que lhes oferecer?) with respect to which they have an advantage over those who they perceive as their competitors. (p. 49)

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Among all the economists who have been critical of the equilibrium approach none has been more devastating from my perspective than Hayek (1948, 1978) with his view that an equilibrium concept of competition is a contradiction in terms. In a much quoted passage he suggests that,

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if the state of affairs assumed by the theory of perfect competition ever existed, it would not only deprive of their scope all the activities which the verb ‘to compete’ describes but would make them virtually impossible. (p. 92)

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Instead competition is a succession of events, a dynamic process, a voyage of exploration into the unknown in which successively superior products and production methods are introduced, and consumers discover who meets their particular needs and how. Neither producers nor consumers know in advance the outcome of the competitive process, for that can only be established by trial and error. Putting it another way, atomistic competitive trading implies the absence of all competitive actions. Again we begin to see a link between the process view and the emphasis on differential behaviours of rival agents, and we should note Hayek’s insistence that differentiation of this kind undermines any claim that agents can have complete knowledge of all the factors relevant to market behaviour.

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Knight, too, favoured an exploratory perspective on the economic process in which not only the capabilities of firms but the preferences of individuals become the endogenous outcome of a trial and error economic process.

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When new opportunities continually arise, one will see under competition a continuing process of change which carries with it continued opportunities for profit and growth. One cannot hope to understand the competitive nature of such a process by examining it in terms of static competitive equilibrium.(1983, p. 39)

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The driving force in competition is not the adjustment of price but innovation, the theory of which had occupied Schumpeter in two previous major works, Business Cycles and The Theory of Economic Development. For it is through innovation that firms command a decisive cost or quality advantage affecting not their marginal profits but their very existence. Thus it is a matter of comparative indifference whether atomistic price competition in the ordinary sense operates more or less promptly.

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(Moi ici: Cada cavadela cada minhoca!!!!! O trecho que se segue é um manjar dos deuses. Uma achega à minha guerra sobre a superioridade da eficácia sobre a eficiência) Capitalism is not to be judged in terms of its immediate efficiency in allocating given resources across given opportunities but in terms of its ability over time to create resources and opportunities. Hence Schumpeter’s central idea of change driven from within, brilliantly captured in his phrase ‘creative destruction’. This, it should be emphasized, is not an optional extra to the capitalist process but is the capitalist process: equilibrium capitalism is for Schumpeter a contradiction in terms.

Consequently, it would seem one cannot understand capitalistic competition in terms of a comparison of sequences of equilibria."

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Mongo por todo o lado!!!
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Trechos retirados de "Evolutionary economics and creative destruction" de J. Stanley Metcalfe

A destruição está a ocorrer, falta a criatividade

"Falências aumentaram 10% no início deste ano":
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"Até ontem, 1836 sociedades entraram em insolvência, um aumento de quase 10% face aos números do ano passado, de acordo com os dados do Instituto Informador Comercial, a que o DN teve acesso. Em média, são 11,2 insolvências por dia. O número de insolvências, que no final do primeiro trimestre pouco ultrapassava as mil, regista um crescimento de 50% face a Junho de 2008."

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Com base neste artigo de Abril "Aumento de insolvências em 2010 mostra que a "crise não está encerrada", diz professor universitário" podemos concluir que o número de insolvências está a acelerar.

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Pormenores sobre os sectores mais afectados podem ser consultados aqui.

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Os números ilustram que a destruição está a ocorrer, que a micro-economia que não se consegue adaptar à competição e ao saque dos impostos está a fechar.

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O que é que é preciso para desencadear a faísca da criatividade, a que gera a criação de riqueza?